Medium as Message
A Case for Blockchain as an Art Medium
Eva Gentner
Dissertation
Master of Studies in History of Art and Visual Culture,
Trinity Term 2022
University of Oxford
1
Abstract
NFTs, their aesthetic and artistic value, as well as their high-priced sales, have been the
subject of various controversial discussions since the beginning of 2021. However, the ongoing
debate is mainly focused on NFTs as collectibles and does not include the role and potential of
the blockchain itself as a profound part of artistic practice. In my dissertation, I argue that
blockchain represents a new medium for art which, like every other art medium, influences
how its art is constituted, produced, perceived, and consumed. In concordance with its medium,
blockchain art is, as I will demonstrate, inherently programmable and decentralised. Firstly, I
will expound the idea and basic concepts of blockchain technology. Secondly, blockchain art
will be placed in an art-historical context, revealing the continuation and resumption of certain
pre-existing issues and questions of twentieth-century and contemporary artistic practice.
Thirdly, I will distinguish between examples where blockchain technology is used as a means
for dissemination, and artworks where the blockchain is specifically addressed, applied, and
leveraged as an inherent part of the artistic concept, constituting the art form: blockchain art.
Lastly, I will argue that this art form represents and exemplifies the democratic nature of its
underlying technology, mediating the vision of decentralisation, an alternative to current
societal structures. These observations and conclusions are made possible through an
introduction, discussion, and analysis of examples of blockchain art.
2
Contents
On blockchain technology and art.......................................................................................... 3
Contextualising blockchain art ............................................................................................. 12
Blockchain art and its constitution ....................................................................................... 22
Mediating a vision .................................................................................................................. 31
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 40
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 44
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On blockchain technology and art
Art can enact change. Blockchain is a technology that has been introduced to bring change
to the financial system, shifting power from singular instances to a decentralised network of
peers. The blockchain is also a medium for art. Since the beginning of 2021, the profusion of
NFT production and high-priced sales have led to controversy in public discourses, ranging
from admiration to astonishment and contempt.
1
However, ongoing debates are mainly focused
on NFTs as collectibles. The intensity of their commercial success has eclipsed the aesthetic,
creative and social merits of other types of art-making related to blockchains, therefore
disregarding the role and potential of the medium itself as a profound constituent of artistic
practice. In my dissertation, I argue that blockchain represents a medium for the novel art form
blockchain art. I focus attention on the constitution of this art form which, as I will demonstrate,
reflects on and, is determined by, the intrinsically programmable and decentralised nature of
its medium.
NFTs, and their influence on artistic practice, are novel occurrences and academic research,
touching upon aesthetic, conceptual, or philosophical considerations, has not yet been
comprehensively conducted.
2
Therefore, this dissertation is intended to provide a first
introduction to blockchain art, and to blockchain as a medium for art. I have identified four
main questions, covering different perspectives on how these phenomena can be assessed.
Firstly, I will ask about the principles of blockchain technology and how they are, under certain
circumstances, related to artistic production. Secondly, questions are raised as to how
blockchain art resumes issues of the twentieth-, and early twenty-first-century art historical
context. Thirdly, with respect to other creative productions relying on blockchain technology,
I outline the characteristics of blockchain art. The concluding chapter is focused on the
relevance of this art form as a phenomenon of the present. The overarching goal of this
1
Various sensational headlines represent the ongoing public discussion: ‘Are NFTs really art?’
https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/mar/14/are-nfts-really-art (20 May 2022); ‘“I went from having
to borrow money to making $4m in a “day”: how NFTs are shaking up the art world’
https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/nov/06/how-nfts-non-fungible-tokens-are-shaking-up-the-art-
world (20 May 2022).
2
Catlow et al. published a work comprising artistic and theoretical contributions about the intersection between
blockchains and art in general. It has been published prior to the introduction of NFTs and, consequently, the
blockchain as a medium for art is not discussed. R. Catlow, et al. (eds), Artists Re:Thinking the Blockchain
(Liverpool 2017). Articles, reflecting on NFT use cases related to the art market, exist, often with an emphasis on
economic perspectives, for instance: D. MacDonald-Korth, et al., The Art Market 2.0: Blockchain and
Financialisaton in Visual Arts (Oxford Internet Institute and The Alan Turing Institute, 2018); B. Patrickson,
‘What Do Blockchain Technologies Imply for Digital Creative Industries?’, Creativity and Innovation
Management, 30/3 (2021), pp. 585–595; or A. Whitaker, ‘Art and Blockchain: A Primer, History, and Taxonomy
of Blockchain Use Cases in the Arts’, Artivate, 8/2 (2019), pp. 2146.
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dissertation is to introduce blockchain as an analytical subject, and in doing so, elucidate the
deeply entrenched relation between content and medium as constituents of the art form’s
meaning. Examples of blockchain art throughout this dissertation help to illustrate such
considerations and reveal how the envisioned change of blockchain technology is reflected by
the art itself.
Blockchain technology evokes a multiplicity of associations, ranging from technological
innovation and the hope for (global) democracy, to financial freedom, investment speculation,
and cyber criminality. NFTs and blockchain art are closely related to this discussion given their
dependence on the technology. Any appreciation of blockchain art requires an understanding
of its constituents, in particular, the structures and functions of blockchains, non-fungible
tokens (NFTs) and cryptocurrencies. Accordingly, the comprehension of these concepts
involves a multidisciplinary approach that includes engineering, computer and data science,
economics, and other fields depending on the depth of analysis. An isolated consideration of
aesthetics or art historical questions, therefore, appears impractical, and to some extent
irrelevant as the message is, as explored in this dissertation, also derived from the medium.
Concepts, correlations, and in particular the vision of blockchain, are not intuitively graspable
and, as a consequence, might appear untrustworthy. While the technology and its vision can
take on an immense complexity, it is not my intention, and also out of my scope, to describe
and analyse the multi-layered relation between all the parts of this system. Instead, I attempt to
convey its fundamental concepts, and the potential it offers to individual humans and societies.
Looking at the art that uses and thematises blockchains will make the technology itself more
accessible and show one example of how it can be used. In the following, I will explain some
of the basic technical principles and then transition to a first example of blockchain art which
combines technical premises with conceptual and aesthetic considerations.
The fundamental vision behind blockchain technology is decentralisation. Decentralisation
means the shift of power from one instance to a multitude of peers, which is, within the context
of blockchain technology, applied to a financial model. This seemingly simple and broad idea
entails wide-ranging consequences as it is supposed to increase transparency, efficiency, and
eventually equality within and across electronic systems of finance.
3
The basic idea of the
3
Blockchain technology was first described by Satoshi Nakamoto in the whitepaper Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer
Electronic Cash System in 2009. More information on blockchains in general can be found here: D. Tapscott and
A. Tapscott, Blockchain Revolution. How the Technology behind Bitcoin and other Cryptocurrencies Is Changing
the World (London, 2019); and A. Lewis, The Basics of Bitcoins and Blockchains. An Introduction to
Cryptocurrencies and the Technology that Powers Them (Coral Gables, 2021).
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technology can be broken down to three principles: (1) a distributed ledger system which (2)
creates a network to store data in a (3) trustworthy way. Firstly, a distributed ledger system
means that, instead of relying on a centralised instance that holds all decisive power, a network
is introduced where this power is distributed among a multitude of actors where, consequently,
no single instance possesses the majority of votes or shares. A centralised instance can be a
single person, like a judge, or institutions, such as universities or banks, whereas these bodies
are entitled to declare a certain matter as valid. Then, a ledger, for instance a record-keeping
book, is where verified records are stored. The most prominent example is offered by the
finance industry. Banks and financial services (centralised ledgers), for example HSBC or Visa,
verify account balances and transactions. Alternative models, in turn, rely on a distributed
ledger system where a consensus needs to be achieved in order to enact changes. In short,
traditional models require a middleman, or a trusted third party, whereas alternative models
skip this position and distribute the power over many peers. Secondly, a blockchain is nothing
else but a digital archive where data is stored. In the first instance, the technology was
developed to record transactions. However, it is arbitrary what kind of data it contains. Other
examples might comprise health data, certificates, or voting results. This information is utterly
sensitive, and granting safety and privacy has highest priority. In fact, this is the most delicate,
but also the decisive factor and leads to the third requirement: blockchains must be reliable and
secure. Faulty or manipulated data can lead to wrong account balances or transactions might
not be verified, which, in both cases, can have wide-ranging financial consequences.
None of the three aspects are new on their own; it is their combination that creates a novel,
immensely powerful, model. Yet comprehending its potential, especially considering the
involved risks, requires a brief comparison between decentralised and centralised models.
There are instances where centralised approaches undoubtedly offer the best solutions. For
example, a fire brigade or public transport system functions effectively with one expert body
taking on the responsibility to overlook and regulate those specific systems. However, in other
areas like politics, autocratic systems are vehemently criticised. We acknowledge the risks
related to centralised power that might lead to its abuse, to the preference of certain groups or
individuals, and consequently, discrimination towards others. Developed nations demand
democracy. Nevertheless, many parts of our societal structure are based on centralised
approaches. As shown, the financial system relies on banks and services; elections are run by
single bodies; also, the art market mostly relies on galleries and auction houses to conduct
sales. In case there is an issue related to the middlemen, or the mediating instance is problematic
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in some way, the entire system is affected and might collapse. Corruption is a serious issue
when it comes to elections as, for instance, the recent political climate in Venezuela over the
last several years has shown. Banks are among those institutions often criticised for their lack
of transparency. The art market, likewise, is dominated by price and value-determining
instances. In short, for many of these cases we have no other option than to simply trust certain
bodies and services, even if they may not be trustworthy. Such reliance on centralised entities
may even work to reinforce defective systems.
By removing power from a single instance towards a multitude of peers, a system becomes
more resistant against fraud. Compared to a one-party model, where the entire unit is spoiled
in cases where the centralised party becomes malicious, a democratically organised model
consisting of, for instance, ten parties, is considerably more securea malicious actor would
have to convince, at least, five other participants to achieve the majority of voting power.
Therefore, the more peers are involved, the more decentralised, democratic, and, most
importantly, the more secure the system becomes.
Indeed, there are various profound challenges, flaws, and problematic issues related to
blockchain technology which yet need to be resolved. The ecological footprint of certain
blockchains, especially Bitcoin, is unacceptably high due to a technical mechanism which
requires an immense amount of computing power. The shift towards an entirely digital payment
system requires high cyber-security standards, as funds might be irrevocably lost, which has
happened in the past. Even after more than a decade since the introduction of Bitcoin,
blockchain technologies only have a few real world applications due to the complexity of their
implementation into traditional environments. However, every technology comes with trade-
offs. These issues, amongst others, are well known and are being addressed by a spectrum of
newly emerging alternatives to Bitcoin. In my dissertation, I focus on the Cardano blockchain.
Cardano is environmentally friendly and significantly more sustainable as a so-called ‘proof-
Centralised (left) and distributed system (right). Visualisation: Marcel Nießner.
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of-stake’ protocol is used, which requires, compared to Bitcoin’s ‘proof-of-work’ mechanism
(mining), 17,800 times less energy.
4
Also, Cardano has been developed on the basis of
scientific research in the areas of cryptography, game theory, and more, which provides a
technically sustainable foundation.
5
It is essential to acknowledge that blockchain technology
does not equal blockchain or cryptocurrency. Introducing DendroRithms, an example of
blockchain art, will allow me to disentangle the relation between these entities, and expand on
other aspects, such as block production and in what terms the blockchain serves as a medium
for art.
DendroRithms is a digital art installation released as an NFT collection between February
and May 2022 by the artist duo MICK + WOUT. The term NFT is misleading and oftentimes
is used imprecisely. It is the acronym for ‘non-fungible token’ and means the proof of
ownership over a specific digital asset. These assets are attached to the NFT and might include
an image, an audio file, or even a degree certificate. Therefore, an NFT is neither the actual
artwork, nor necessarily related to art at all. This opens the question of how NFTs relate to
blockchains. As indicated, a blockchain essentially is a decentralised data repository. Its main
use case is to store transaction data of cryptocurrencies. Every blockchain operates its own
cryptocurrency; Ethereum’s token is called Ether, whereas Bitcoin is eponymous for both the
blockchain and currency. Singular units of a certain currency are called ‘fungible tokens’, as
opposed to ‘non-fungible tokens’. By analogy, a one-pound coin is a fungible token of the
currency British Pounds; it is interchangeable (fungible) with another Pound, or equally two
fifty-pence coins. Picasso’s Guernica, for example, is unique (non-fungible) as no identical
unit exists. Non-fungible entities, indeed, can be traded against a certain number of fungible
tokens. NFTs and cryptocurrencies are both digital assets while only NFTs are unique. It is
possible to store transaction data from fungible and non-fungible tokens on a blockchain, as
they are technically similar entities.
4
M. Platt, et al., ‘The Energy Footprint of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms Beyond Proof-of-Work’
(unpublished paper, 2021, IEEE 21st International Conference on Software Quality, Reliability and Security
Companion QRS-C), p. 1139. The Linux Foundation has published a report on the carbon footprint of NFTs,
stating that ‘blockchain technology is not inherently bad for the environment; the consensus mechanism chosen
determines environmental and social impact’, and highlights Cardano as a favourable example. A. Majer, ‘The
Carbon Footprint of NFTs: Not All Blockchains Are Created Equal’, foreword by D. Barbosa (2022),
https://linuxfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/LFResearch_HL_NFT_Report_22Apr22_FINAL.pdf (15 June
2022), p. 18. More information about the technical conception of both mechanisms can be found in
Tapscott/Tapscott,
pp. 3133.
5
All published academic research papers related to Cardano can be found here: ‘IOHK Library’
https://iohk.io/en/research/library/ (10 June 2022).
8
Now, DendroRithms is a collection of 839 pieces, where every instance has been minted as
an NFT. ‘Minting’ is the act of creating a digital asset that is attached to a record on the
blockchain. ‘Collection’, in the specific context of blockchain art, refers to the entirety of pieces
that belong to and constitute one work of art. Thus, the artwork consists of 839 individual
pieces, which are collectively owned by a multitude of people, as it is often the case for
blockchain art. The following link will open a webpage that shows multiple NFTs, each of
them containing one Dendro. Due to their digital nature, it is possible to present original works
of art, rather than facsimiles.
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DendroRithms
DendroRithms was conceptually and aesthetically inspired by dendrochronology, a
scientific method that allows the determination of the age of trees by analysing their growth
rings. In analogy to tree sections, a Dendro symbolises a conceptual cross section through the
blockchain as an organism, dissecting and visually representing its principles. Tree rings mark
the passing of years, and thus conceptually, visualise elapsing time. Blockchains disclose a
similar pattern: in periodic intervals, blocks are produced. A block is an artificial unit that
contains the records of all transactions made during a specific time period. Due to the consensus
mechanism, a block is only produced if the majority of network participants (>51%) validate
the contents of an entire block. As it is impractical to validate every single transaction on its
own, blocks were introduced to validate them in bundles. Once such an entity has been
validated, its contents are encrypted, hence the often used prefix crypto-, and it is no longer
possible to make changes. Immutability is a core principle of the technology as it assures the
secure storage of information.
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Every Dendro is created by an algorithm. An algorithm, also referred to as ‘code’, includes
a set of rules that processes certain values and, consequently, determines the visual output.
Therefore, the image of a Dendro is only one part of what constitutes the installation, assigning
6
By clicking on the linkit might take some time until all contents are loadedyou will see a digital wallet
which is the entity where assets are stored. Often, we have British Pounds, but also non-monetary items like
passport photographs in our physical wallet. The same applies to digital wallets. This example contains a certain
amount of ADA [], the cryptocurrency of Cardano, as well as NFTs. By clicking on a certain example, you will
see the artwork in detail, along with more information. This wallet is owned by the author.
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Network participants are people who run a server that contains all information of a blockchain and therefore
actively contribute to its maintenance and operation. Cardano, for instance, has more than 3,000 peers. Anyone
with an adequate technical understanding and infrastructure can contribute. Every blockchain has its own protocol
with varying operational models. More information on consensus mechanisms and immutability can be found
here: Tapscott/Tapscott, pp. 3033; or Lewis, pp. 331333.
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the code with equal relevance.
8
This duality of an invisibly operating algorithm, containing all
required information, and its visible product, be it an image, application or website, which
people mainly interact with, is fundamental in software engineering in general and reflects how
blockchains are constituted. It also reveals the difference between blockchain and blockchain
technology. The latter reflects all rules and requirements which are transcribed to lines of code.
A blockchain, consequently, is the actual product that is in use. Even though it is this entity,
which is present and tangible, it would not exist without its underlying algorithm. This applies
to commercial products as much as to algorithmically generated art.
DendroRithms is an interactive work. The collection’s composition required input from
every person who bought a Dendro and individual choices are reflected in each piece, as well
as the entire collection. Buyers were presented with two choices. Firstly, one could choose a
colour from a selection whereas every colour forms an independent sub-collection, or rather
sub-chain, of the overall project. Secondly, one had to decide whether a core should be added
or not. This decision was always related to the previous piece that had been created as part of
this chain; if there were three existing cores, one could choose between a piece with either three
or four cores. If a buyer refused to add one, the piece would show the same number as the
previous one, or, after a predefined time, the number would decrease. As a result, Dendros of
the same colour form a linear chain where every newly added piece is tied to its predecessor.
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In tree sections, a core represents the starting point of growth and every year a new layer is
added. DendroRithms, as well as blockchains, also add new layers to an existing system,
visualising the continuous growth, sometimes interrupted by periods of depression, mirroring
the choices individuals made. The more people participate, contribute, and mint, the more cores
are added, and more variety occurs; or, metaphorically, the more distributed the network
becomes.
The interaction between a subject and a group is a main theme of DendroRithms. Each core
reminds of the sphere of influence of one individual, reflecting its position within an amalgam
of various players. When another player joins, the equilibrium is distorted and a new group
dynamic has to be established. In game theory, as well as actor network theory, these dynamics
are exploredboth theories are relevant for blockchain technology as they enable predictions
8
The algorithm can be found as part of a documentation: ‘Source code of DendroRithms’
https://github.com/wout/dendro/blob/main/dendro.cr (26 April 2022). The role of algorithms in artistic practice,
as well as generative art will be defined in the next chapter.
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If you return to the wallet, you will be able to see such a sub-chain of the colour naples yellow. Certain Dendros
are missing within this sequence, for example Dendro0778, which are in the possession of other holders. This
implies that sub-chains are owned by many people instead of a single person.
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about individual interactions with a network. The relation between individual and group, buyer
and sellers, and also between code and image, is designed by the artists, although some
variables always remain out of their control. For example, one part of the algorithm is a
randomness factor which influences the aesthetics of every piece and its details, such as the
exact position of the cores or the course of the lines. Working with probability and
predictability, again, is not only part of this artwork, but also a condition of blockchain design.
A Dendro represents a static snapshot of a moment in time. As is the case in photography,
every piece is a witness of one specific moment that ontologically belongs to the past right after
its creation. The depiction of, and oscillation between, reality and pastthe aesthetics of what
Roland Barthes called the that-has-been’
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correlates with the conception of blocks in a
blockchain. Each entry immutably represents an issue that has had its relevance at this specific
moment. In analogy to block production, where new blocks are enclosed to a continuous string
of preceding information, DendroRithms reflects the evolution of singular entities, strung
together in multiple linear sequences.
But in what terms can a blockchain be understood as a medium for art? When we make a
regular payment, it is possible to add further information to the payment slip, such as a
reference number or annotations. The same applies to NFTs: additional informationfor
example, text, links, or codecan be included in the metadata. The following link, referring to
Dendro0777, displays this:
10
R. Barthes, Camera Lucida. Reflections on Photography (London, 2000), pp. 76f.
DendroRithms sub-chain of the colour porcelain. Visualisation: Mateu Walker.
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Dendro0777: Code and Image
Parts of the algorithm and an image of Dendro0777 is stored in the metadata of this NFT.
As a result, the blockchain becomes the carrier of the artwork as the NFT comprises all parts
that constitute it. The NFT itselfthis must be emphasised againis generally solely the
certificate of ownership that refers to, or contains, an artwork, rather than being the artwork
itself. It would have been possible to only include the image of each Dendro and store its code
elsewhere, for example on a webserver or computer. Instead, MICK + WOUT decided to
include everything in the NFT, utilising the medium in a conceptual way, and also making the
code available to everyone. Open-
source code is, to some extent, a
necessity within the blockchain
industry as network operators are
required to have access to it. In
general, open-source stands for
transparency. Exactly because the
algorithm and information about
DendroRithms are public, people
are able to work with it and make
their own creations as the
visualisation of Dendro sales data shows.
DendroRithms symbolises the growth of a living organism, utilising methods of
programming while the collection is collectively owned by a multitude of individuals. It
reflects on the blockchain as an entity that requires shared efforts to keep it alive, that tracks
and mirrors every single interaction with it, and is kept in constant change and growth.
Blockchain technology envisions the evolution of a global, inclusive and participatory network,
providing a trusted infrastructure based on security and transparency, while remaining
completely digital, online and encoded. DendroRithms enables a visual experience of some of
the inherently non-visual principles and conditions related to blockchains, recreating
interactive and tangible chains of artworks, using the blockchain itself as a medium.
Timeline of DendroRithms sales sorted by colour. Visualisation:
Vanoz.
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Contextualising blockchain art
Blockchain art must be understood as the continuation and consequence of twentieth and
early twenty-first century events, rather than as an unprecedented and isolated occurrence.
NFTs primarily offer a new way of disseminating artwork and other information in digital
environments. However, as DendroRithms has shown, the technology induces conceptual
experimentation with the medium itself. Thus far, I have demonstrated some of the basic
principles of blockchains, implicitly outlining the dual constitution of meaning in art, derived
from its content and medium. Also, I have used the term ‘blockchain art’ to describe art that
uses, and reflects on, the blockchain as its medium. By introducing a second artwork, which
discloses these features of blockchain art and, thus, qualifies it as a representative of this
artform, I will explain in what terms blockchain art can be considered as another link in a
continuous string of art movements, idea history, and technological advances. Intersections and
differences will be presented between blockchain art and other art forms, such as mass art,
which is specified by formal qualities, and art movements that are driven by a conceptual
definition, such as abstract and especially generative art.
unsigned_algorithms is created by Alexander Watanabe, a former architect with a broad
spectrum of interests in parametric architectural design, photography, and programming, all of
which are reflected in this artwork. The artwork consists of 31,119 unique pieces, in short
unsigs, which were created by means of programming and minting NFTs on the Cardano
blockchain. The collection represents an abstract colour study of the RGB colour model; the
digital equivalent to traditional (analogue) colour theory. Unlike models that are based on the
subtraction of colours from natural white light, occurring when colour pigments (paint) are
mixed, the RGB model is additive, using the light emission of screens. The base colours red,
green and blue are used to create the entire colour spectrum. As opposed to subtractive models,
white light is generated when blending equal parts of all three base colours.
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unsigned_algorithms
11
The following wallet belongs to Grancho. As these artworks thematise colour as a phenomenon, the resolution
of your screen will influence the quality of the visual experience. The higher the resolution, the better will unsigs
be represented. I recommend choosing one specific piece, for example unsig09453, and open it in full screen mode
(rectangle above image).
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Every unsig exhibits a unique combination of colour gradients, with certain patterns
constituting their base structure. In analogy to a prism that breaks light into its full spectrum of
different wavelengths, the colour gradients of unsigs are modelled by these patterns which
define how the gradients blend into each other. As a result, some pieces reveal a single linear
gradient, others consist of iterations of the same gradient, following different curves, and again
others are a complex assembly of various patterns with different orientations. The plethora of
mixing options provided by the RGB colour wheel is explored, not only showing the gradual
and soft transition of base and mixed colours, but also the effects that strong contrasts provoke.
unsigned_algorithms grapples with the intensity and brightness of colour as a digital
phenomenon, the consequence of additive light mixing. It enables spectators to experience the
effects of digital colour diversity on the visual perception.
In 1940, Clement Greenberg characterised abstract art as a phenomenon of ‘historical
justification’ and explained the emphasis on immersive size, colour, basic forms, and flatness
in painting as a logical consequence and premise of the canvas as medium.
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Main figures in
abstract painting, like Mark Rothko or Barnett Newman, aimed to evoke a metaphysical
experience through the encounter of the spectator with large-scale colour fields. By choosing
an abstract style for his artwork, Watanabe transferred some of these conditionscolour,
abstract forms, and flatnessinto a digital environment. Due to the limitations of a non-
analogous medium, resulting in rather small display options depending on the dimensions of
the monitor, extraordinary image sizes could not be used as a way to induce a reaction in the
spectator. Instead, Watanabe leveraged the remarkably high colour intensity and brilliance of
the digital environment to evoke an immersive effect. A study implies the repetitive assessment
of a certain phenomenon. Rothko’s and Newman’s body of work reveal a continuous
exploration of colour. Watanabe brought this exploration of colour to a different medium by
using other techniques, resulting in a study that would not have been possible to create with
12
C. Greenberg, ‘Towards a Newer Laocoon’ (1940), in Ch. Harrison and P. Wood (eds), Art in Theory
19002000. An Anthology of Changing Ideas (Malden/Oxford, 2003), p. 567.
Alexander Watanabe, unsig00238, detail, 16k png, minted as NFT on Cardano, 2021.
14
analogue measures. However, it becomes evident that such a digital environment creates
fundamentally different premises, resulting in works which equally adopt and break with the
tradition. The emotional response to the exposure of colour in a digital, as well as an analogue,
context, eventually, always remains a subjective experience.
With the advance of internet technology and digitisation, a wave of new technologies and
media were introduced to art practice, inherently influencing the art itself. Blockchain
technology appears to be yet another occurrence amongst others. The debate of the past century
has been shaped by Walter Benjamin’s view on the reproducibility of art, as well as Marshal
McLuhan’s advocacy of the importance of the medium itself, both influencing the intellectual
perception of (mass) media.
13
Greenberg’s dismissal of mass art as a form of kitsch in 1939
raised questions about differences in the qualities of art and mass culture.
14
The debate became
even more present with the wide adoption of television shows, cartoons, or comic books in the
past seventy years. It led to an academic sentiment which is rather hesitant towards mass art
because, according to Noël Carroll, in order to be accessible for a wide audience with varying
backgrounds, the level of complexity would need to be reduced.
15
Following Carroll’s
definition of mass art as art, which is created for mass production, mass consumption and
distribution, and made by means of mass technology,
16
NFTs, in most cases, must be
considered as mass media. The introduction of NFTs, as indicated at the beginning of this
dissertation, created a public response, either hyping or downplaying the ongoing events, which
is comparable to the emergence of mass media some decades ago. Carroll critiques the
‘distinction between so-called high art and popular art [… which] serves to mark off an élite
class from, presumably, everyone else’.
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I follow his stance as the definition of what is ‘high’
and ‘popular’ mostly remains subjective. Within every art form, the level of complexity, skill,
thought, and relevance varies. This applies to mass media and its productions whereas, as
shown, NFTs belong to as well.
During a panel discussion at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Toronto in May 2022,
titled The Medium is the Message: Cardano and Blockchain Art: The “Global Village” realized
through “on-chain” Digital Art, Watanabe’s artwork unsigned_algorithms was discussed in the
13
W. Benjamin, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’ (1936), in Ch. Harrison and P. Wood
(eds), Art in Theory 19002000. An Anthology of Changing Ideas (Malden/Oxford, 2003), pp. 520527;
M. McLuhan and Q. Fiore, The Medium Is the Message, ed. J. Agel (London, 1967).
14
C. Greenberg, ‘Avant-Garde and Kitsch’ (1939), in Ch. Harrison and P. Wood (eds), Art in Theory 19002000.
An Anthology of Changing Ideas (Malden/Oxford, 2003), pp. 539549.
15
N. Carroll, A Philosophy of Mass Art (Oxford, 1998), p. 195.
16
Ibid., p. 196.
17
Ibid., p. 178.
15
light of McLuhan’s body of thought.
18
Unlike, for example, television shows, blockchain art
does not follow a one-to-many broadcasting pattern. Instead, and this is, in fact, what separates
NFTs to some extent from other mass media, blockchain technology relies on a peer-to-peer
network where potentially everyone with access to a computer and is well-versed with the
technology can communicate with everyone. This difference sustainably influences the
dynamics of the art market as artists have the chance to take on the entire responsibility for
their sales process. Nevertheless, having access to a global audience, instead of a local
community mostly dependant on galleries, brings other challenges, such as the requirement of
a certain technological and economic expertise.
Like DendroRithms, unsigned_algorithms is created by means of programming. Due to its
relevance for blockchain art, I will focus in more depth on this art form. Philip Galanter has
provided a definition of generative art which serves as the starting point for further
exploration:
19
Generative art refers to any art practice where the artist uses a system, such as a set of natural
language rules, a computer program, a machine, or other procedural invention, which is set into
motion with some degree of autonomy contributing to or resulting in a completed work of art.
It becomes evident that generative art is not limited to an art practice that involves
computer-based programming, as is the case within this context. In fact, generative art can
cover digital and analogue works. The complexity and extent of the basic principles is
presumably the reason why no synoptic work, neither on the entirety of generative art, nor on
generative art based on programming, has been published.
20
Attempts were made to introduce
a more specific taxonomy, covering sub-categories such as computer art, computer-generated
art, or interactive art.
21
However, as these attempts do not give any information on what such
a system, as described by Galanter, might look like, Alan Dorin et al. delivered a framework
for a better comprehension.
22
According to them, such a system consists of entities, ‘the
18
Creative Conversations: Blockchain Art and NFTs’ https://moca.ca/events/creative-conversations-blockchain-
art-and-nfts_panel-01/ (29 May 2022).
19
Ph. Galanter, ‘What is Generative Art? Complexity Theory as a Context for Art Theory’ (unpublished paper,
2003), http://www.philipgalanter.com/downloads/ga2003_paper.pdf (4 June 2022), p. 4.
20
A small number of monographs is available which focus on the practical aspects of programming to create
generative art. Theoretical considerations are only marginally covered, for instance, within introductory chapters,
as in M. Pearson, Generative Art. A Practical Guide Using Processing (Shelter Island, NY, 2011), pp. 110.
21
Boden/Edmonds have identified eleven categories in total. M. A. Boden and E. A. Edmonds, ‘What Is
Generative Art?’, Digital Creativity, 20/12 (2009), pp. 37f. Monographs exist that cover some of these sub-
categories, such as D. McIver Lopes, A Philosophy of Computer Art (Abingdon, 2010); or Ch. Paul, Digital Art,
3rd edn (London, 2015), pp. 124138.
22
A. Dorin et al., ‘A Framework for Understanding Generative Art’, Digital Creativity, 23/34 (2012),
pp. 239259.
16
subjects upon which a generative artwork’s processes act’;
23
then, processes, ‘the mechanisms
of change that occur within a generative system’.
24
Further they posit, environmental
interaction as the influence on the operational system, and, lastly, sensory outcomes as the
resulting artwork. In the following, I will use the term ‘programmatic art’ as an art form that
comprises, on one hand, an input (entities) and an algorithm (process), written by a human and
executed by a computer (!), and, on the other hand, the product of that algorithm (sensory
outcome) which can include, for instance, an image, audio, or text file. This simplified
definition is intended to specifically serve the purpose of this dissertation. I will use the term
‘programmatic art’ instead of ‘generative art’, as, for example, Galanter does, to emphasise the
programmability of the input, as well as the importance of the computing process itself. This,
in turn, reflects the characteristics of blockchains. In contrast, ‘generative art’ highlights the
(static) nature of the output.
Previously, only the sensory outcomes of unsigned_algorithms were discussed. However,
it is, as the artist emphasises, the input and the algorithm which constitute the ‘actual
artwork.
25
All unsigs were created by the same algorithm while differing input parameters are
responsible for the aesthetics of every piece. Simultaneously to the launch of the collection,
Watanabe published a documentation that explains how unsigs are generated.
26
It was compiled
especially for people who are not capable of reading code and, therefore, able to retrieve this
information from the algorithm itself. This highlights the importance of the underlying idea
and reveals that unsigs share some characteristics with conceptual art where the idea of an
artwork is (significantly) more relevant than its sensory representation. While a definition of
conceptual art oftentimes must remain vague due to the diversity of the artworks it seeks to
cover, parts of Sol LeWitt’s Paragraphs on Conceptual Art are well suited to characterise
Watanabe’s intentions: ‘When an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the
23
A. Dorin et al., p. 8.
24
Ibid., p. 9.
25
‘What is Unsigned Algorithms? A chat with #Unsig founder Alex’, YouTube (uploaded 28 August 2021)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHe2WU7NQYg (18 June 2022), starting at 11:11, ‘The code is the “art”’.
26
‘Programmatic NFT. Exploring the medium of blockchain-based art, its potential and impact on art’
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1A2lA659QM0NdjkCi84itPaWpPxq7PDe7moruwJ8N0V0/edit#slide
=id.gd9d03af5fa_0_161 (20 May 2022).
Input (left), algorithm (middle), and sensory outcome (right).
Visualisation: Marcel Nießner.
17
planning and decisions are made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctionary affair. The
idea becomes a machine that makes the art’.
27
In this case, the algorithm is the idea.
As MICK + WOUT did it, inputs, algorithm, and resulting images were all placed in the
metadata of the NFT. In fact, this approach itself is an artistic statement. The metadata is meant
to store information about the asset that is contained. As this information eventually will be
stored in a block, the character space available in the metadata is highly limited to 16 kB. Every
artwork stored in the metadata, a so-called ‘on-chain’ works, has to comply with this limitation.
This restricts the possibilities of the artwork but it also leads to a conceptual interaction with
the medium. Watanabe was the first one on the Cardano blockchain who stored his artwork on-
chain.
28
To emphasise the relevance of this method, it must be mentioned that most works
simply include a link to an image on an external webserver where the digital asset is stored. In
other words, these works only engage marginally with the blockchain as their medium, using
it mainly as a means for dissemination. unsigned_algorithms is a direct critique of this
approach. Watanabe argues that ‘on-chain art is more than just a storage container for existing
forms, it can and should be its own medium to be explored’.
29
As the inputs, the code, and the
sensual output are included in the NFT, the blockchain effectively contains the message.
Everyone who has access to LeWitt’s instructions for his wall drawings has the possibility to
recreate the sensory representation of these instructions. The same applies to unsigs; it is
possible to recreate every image by individually executing the code.
30
Watanabe alludes to the
immutability of blockchains because, as long as Cardano exists, unsigned_algorithms is
immutable too as the information for every piece can be retrieved from its NFT. Conceptual
art often questions the definition of what constitutes an artwork. These questions reappear in
the context of programmatic art, and especially blockchain art, as such works include multiple
components whereas their roles in relation to each other are not necessarily clearly delineated.
27
S. LeWitt, ‘Paragraphs on Conceptual Art’ (1967), in Ch. Harrison and P. Wood (eds), Art in Theory
19002000. An Anthology of Changing Ideas (Malden/Oxford, 2003), p. 846. More information about the history
and spectrum of conceptual art can be found in T. Godfrey, Conceptual Art (London/New York, 1998), especially
pp. 416.
28
There were few examples on other blockchains before. But as NFT standards vary depending on the blockchain,
different solutions have to be developed mostly independently and Watanabe paved the way for future on-chain
art on Cardano. The limited space in the metadata is partially the reason for the multitude of pixelated NFT projects
as a reduced resolution leads to this aesthetic.
29
‘Programmatic NFT. Exploring the medium of blockchain-based art, its potential and impact on art’, p. 6.
30
Instructions on how to do so, even suitable for people without programming skills, can be found here:
alexanderwatanabe, ‘unsigned_algorithms’
https://github.com/alexanderwatanabe/unsigned_algorithms/blob/main/
unsig_gen.ipynb (19 June 2022).
18
unsig00000, the first piece in the collection, differs from every other unsig as it is the only
one that comprises the entire algorithm. Analysing the structure of it becomes relevant for a
holistic understanding of the artwork and the nature of programmatic art in general. As
indicated, varying input parameters define the specifications of every piece. Instead of writing
31,119 algorithms with minor differences, every unsig (except for unsig00000) solely contains
its individual parameters and a reference to this specific piece. Therefore, only unsig00000 is
complete in itself which makes this method highly efficient and technically elegant.
31
unsig00000: algorithm
unsig00000 constitutes the ‘negative’, or the ‘DNA’, of the rest of the collection. The piece
also visually differs as its sensory outcome, a black square, marks is the total absence of
coloura consequence of the absence of input parameters. Four of these parameters exist, each
containing different options (see visualisation below): (1) the distribution, a mathematic
function, defining the basic structure of the other parameters; (2) a multiplier, specifying the
number of iterations that are applied; (3) the rotation; and (4) colour, using the RGB model.
These parameters provide, in analogy to genetic code, the characteristics for layers. These
layers, in turn, are comparable to chromosomes, which eventually define specific traits. Every
unsig includes between zero and six of these layers (properties). In analogy to the RGB model,
which relies on the addition of colour, layers are stacked on top of each other and result in the
final image. Based on this setup, 50,063,860 different combinations are possible, whereof less
than one percent effectively has been selected as part of the collection. The algorithm, along
with the input parameters, spans a matrix of possible combinations where every unsig
represents the transformation of a possibility into an actual manifestation.
31
The following link will display the algorithm. The sensory outcome of unsig00000, a black square, can be
viewed here: ‘unsig00000’ https://pool.pm/0e14267a8020229adc0184dd25fa3174c3f7d6caadcb4425c70e7
c04.unsig00000 (19 June 2022). It is owned by @adaboy98669717.
19
Comprehending the basics of the algorithm, as it can be found in the metadata of
unsig00000 in the link above, not only discloses the simplicity of its constitution, but it also
reveals conceptual similarities to other building disciplines, especially to architecture. In a first
step, certain coding libraries are imported, which include all required references, similar to the
way architectural references are assembled prior to the actual design process. Then, by defining
the dimensions of the unsig, the space for the eventual image, or, metaphorically, the ground
for the building, is created and marked out. Thirdly, the input parameters, or the building
blocks, are imported. The most important part, however, is the modelling, where the parameters
are arranged: the distribution creates the basic structure, while the multiplier modifies this
structure again and defines its final shape. The rotation sets the orientation and colour is
applied. Or metaphorically: firstly, the structure is built, then additional elements like walls are
added which shape the building, and lastly, the finalised structure is embellished and painted.
In a final step, the algorithm projects the model onto the initially created space and exports the
image.
unsigned_algorithms cheat sheet. Every property (right) consists of a combination of all four parameters (left). unsigs
include between zero and six of these properties. Cheat sheet: Marcel Nießner.
20
The simplicity of the algorithm contrasts the complexity and abundance of possible visual
results that can be derived from it. Moreover, its particular constitution reveals the decisions
and preferences of Watanabe. The artist used two specific arguments, <uint32> and <uint8>,
in the code to define the multiplier parameter; arguments that are usually not used within this
context and, therefore, would be considered as a technical mistake. To present an analogy from
architecture, Daniel Liebeskind and Frank Gehry explored and pushed the limitations of
building materials and statics, questioning what was considered as ‘adequate architecture,
designing buildings which retrieve their particular appearance from the exhaustion of these
limitations. Watanabe used the arguments to play with the possibilities of programming and to
demonstrate his abilities to control the tool, while assigning them the key role of the entire
artwork. The multiplier, in fact, is the defining entity on a conceptual and visual level, as it
creates the structure of unsigs and, therefore, is responsible for the refraction and overflow of
colours. To conclude this chapter, I will outline a parallel to photography.
NFTs reveal a technical analogy to photography.
32
At the time of its advent, photography
was not considered a self-contained art form and it took decades until this perception changed.
The intrinsic aesthetic of remembrance and temporality is solely one example that discloses
photography as an art form, reaching far beyond its use as a means of reproduction.
unsigned_algorithms reveals a conceptual parallel to photography. As only a fraction of all
potential combinations has been realised within the collection, every unsig resembles a
snapshot of one specific case in a multitude of possible options. In analogy to a photograph
which provides a subjective reflection of what inherently cannot be depicted in its totality
namely realityevery unsig reflects on its own parameters while the reference to unsig00000
indicates an encompassing system of higher complexity. The entirety of all pieces, strung
together in a specific sequence, builds an overarching narrative, processing the possible
combinations of the chosen input parameters. The collection resembles a film reel, consisting
of various stills, which is equally a condensation of what would have been possible. On a more
philosophical level, unsigs, as photography in general, trigger considerations about the relation
between a single entity and its surrounding structure; about the subjectivity of an isolated
perspective and how it changes when its position is located within an overarching system,
indicating that what we perceive as reality is always an approximation of what ontologically
cannot be grasped by a singular entity.
32
Considerations about the nature of photography can be found in Barthes Camera Lucida.
21
Repetition, iteration, and modification of a coherent core idea constitute a metaphor of
circular movements, reflecting the nature of unsigned_algorithms. The code itself is infinitely
applicable and repeatable; it strictly and exclusively computes given inputs and transforms
them into an output while every unsig is circling back to unsig00000 to retrieve the required
code. The stacking of properties creates variability on a vertical dimension, and the overarching
narrative adds to this variability on a horizontal level. These iterations reveal the variations and
limitations of always the same three base colours. Eventually, the title unsigned_algorithms
refers to a concept in computer programming called unsigned integers. It describes the
behaviour of certain values when they are translated into a different representational model, for
example, binary code into the hexadecimal system. These integers are part of the
aforementioned arguments that define the multiplier parameter which is, as shown, responsible
for the multiplication of given values and the aesthetics of unsigs. Due to a specificity of
unsigned integers, processes are induced to start over again once they have reached the end of
a unit. The conception of the artwork is condensed in this detail.
The circular movements of unsigned_algorithms metaphorically exemplify the
reappearance and continuity of thought and methodology in different contexts, media, and
times. Blockchain art has intersections with conceptual art, and it relies on similar means as
mass art. Further, it is programmatic, and therefore a sub-category of generative art,
ontologically belonging to the broad category of digital art. I used this specific artwork as a
representative example of blockchain art to demonstrate how this art form can, and must, be
integrated into a broader art historical context, continuing certain aspects of preceding art
movements and their related debates while using different methods and tools. Eventually, the
occurrence of blockchain as a novel medium brings new perspectives on existing concepts and
approaches.
Alexander Watanabe,
unsig0000000035, minted as NFTs on
Cardano, 2021. Own screenshot.
Alexander Watanabe,
unsig1760417640, minted as NFTs on
Cardano, 2021. Own screenshot.
22
Blockchain art and its constitution
A blockchain can be used as a place to store, and as a technology to disseminate, digital
assets. However, these characteristics do not necessarily constitute the blockchain as an actual
art medium. Greenberg argued that ‘[p]urity in art consists in the acceptance, willing
acceptance, of the limitations of the medium of the specific art’.
33
Partially in alignment with
this statement, I define ‘art medium’ as the physical, or immaterial, entity which explicitly
influences the constitution of the art, which is created on this specific medium, through its own
limitations, or rather characteristics. This implies that, in order to be considered as an art
medium, the blockchain must influence the art it contains with its own intrinsic features in a
way no other medium would do. I will expound these characteristics by returning to
DendroRithms and unsigned_algorithms as examples of blockchain art and, in addition,
delineate what I do not include in this category.
In public discourse, all types of art and creative productions related to blockchain
technology are mostly summarised under the term ‘NFT’. As a consequence, this has become
a buzzword. As already emphasised, such a naming is imprecise and misleading as it solely
refers to a technical functionality rather than providing information about the qualitative nature
of what it relates to. However, three different phenomena related to art production can be
identified at this point. By introducing them, I intend to give a brief overview of the kind of art
that is supported by blockchain technology. As is the case for any other attempt of classifying
art (forms), definitions remain loose due to the impossibility of absolute statements and
overlapping categories. The first phenomenon encompasses every form of digital art attached
to an NFT. The current labelling as ‘NFT’ is certainly used for marketing purposes as it
highlights the novelty of the technology. I assume that, once its adoption is more advanced,
this general classification will become less relevant and rather a piece of additional information
related to an artwork. Similarly, when discussing paintings, we only specify whether a painting
is a work made on canvas or wood if it is relevant. Then, the second phenomenon are so-called
PFPs, which is the abbreviation for Pro-File Pictures. Their emergence is closely related to the
introduction of NFTs. However, the conceptual interaction with their medium is limited, which
is why they must be considered separately. After providing some basic information about the
first two categories, I will focus on the third group, which constitutes an independent art form
blockchain art.
33
Greenberg (1940), p. 566.
23
The collage Going out West is a digital
artwork, minted as an NFT on Cardano and,
thus, belongs to the first category. It reflects
on, and pointedly mocks, a position which
marks the ‘in between’: the stance in between
an overwhelming nature and consumerism (of
the American society), between privilege,
marginality and loneliness, between post-
modern reminiscences and contemporary
exploration of technology, and the balance
between analogue and digital media.
NyteLyte, a mixed-media artist living in
Anchorage, Alaska, dedicates her work to
questions of belonging, identity, and the
human gaze, using means of colour and light.
Many of her works were never published until she could disseminate them by means of NFTs.
I introduce this artwork to show the spectrum of art production related to blockchain
technology. The collage is not an example of blockchain art and it has not been created in
response to this technology. Nevertheless, NyteLyte’s digital artworks become accessible
thanks to blockchain ecosystems. The artist’s body of work is influenced by her socio-
demographic and geographic location. However, the art scene in Anchorage is small and the
options of making a living from art making are limited. McLuhan’s vision of a global village
has become relevant for artists like NyteLyte, while using NFTs for art dissemination offers a
possible solution. Going out West exemplifies how blockchain technology can be leveraged by
artists around the globe.
PFPs (Pro-File Pictures) share many similarities with collectibles. Mass distribution of
digital assets by means of NFTs made such collectibles highly popular, as there are no logistical
restraints for collection sizes that encompass a high number of pieces. Baseball cards, in
analogy, are successful as collectibles for various reasons: they are accessible to anyone, and
buying and trading them offers excitement. As one cannot pick the specific cards when
purchasing a bundle, opening that bundle always includes a surprising element. Cards are, due
to artificial rarities, a potential investment. PFPs disclose the same characteristics. Usually, one
main figure serves as the basic type for an entire collection. A selection of attributes and traits,
NyteLyte, Going out West, mixed media collage,
minted as NFT on Cardano, 2021.
24
such as clothing, or accessories, are added to this base figure, creating variety. These attributes
and traits define the rarities of PFPs. Using this mechanism to generate minimal visual
diversity, and, simultaneously, artificial rarity, was a simple way of creating emotional
involvement, and, therefore, a demand and market. A great amount of PFP projects exist. Some
of them reveal a higher complexity than others. For example, in some cases, efforts are made
to build entire online communities, in other cases, additional perks are provided, such as the
access to video games which one can play with their PFPs as a character or avatar.
PFPs reveal certain psychological effects related to digital ownership in general. People
started collecting these kinds of NFTs, for instance, Yummis, and, as the name Pro-File Picture
indicates, they are used as simulacra of their owners on social media. Taking on an identity,
which one can choose freely, reveals the appeal of the digital realm, where traditional values
and rules do not necessarily apply. This phenomenon is twofold: on one hand, people gain
access to online communities and to like-minded people, which creates interaction and a sense
of belonging. On the other hand, PFPs have become in many cases yet another status symbol.
People buy NFTs because there is, apparently, a wish to own an asset; otherwise, one could
simply save the image to one’s device. PFPs, as any other digital asset, are purchased, either to
communicate a certain message to the public, to make a monetary investment, to support an
artist, or, a combination of these issues. Indeed, reasons for personal connection with specific
works occur as well. However, PFPs can be understood as the continuation of social
phenomena, such as collecting trading cards, that occurred as part of pop culture, and were
transferred to a digital environment, showcasing the influence and effects of online anonymity.
The third phenomenon is what I refer to as blockchain art; artworks which require, and
reflect, on the blockchain as their specific medium. Watanabe’s reaction to collectibles was,
‘But why would anyone spend money for a link to a jpeg?’.
34
Both unsigned_algorithms and
34
A. Watanabe, ‘NFTs: why would anyone pay for a link to a JPG?’
https://archinect.com/forum/thread/150312287/nfts-why-would-anyone-pay-for-a-link-to-a-jpg (18 June 2022).
Yummi Universe, Yummi #6190, #8570, #125, #985, #6426, #556, #3501, #2246 and 3863, algorithmically generated PFPs,
minted as NFTs on Cardano, 2021. Own screenshot.
25
DendroRithms were created as a critique of the prevalence of PFPs in the NFT scene. MICK +
WOUT questioned the randomness of purchasing mechanisms which has led to ‘flipping’
the behaviour of buyers who purchase a multitude of pieces until they get a rare example, while
immediately listing everything else on the secondary market. This, indeed, reduces the
appreciation and valuation of the items in many cases to predetermined and artificial rarities.
The interactive minting model of DendroRithms addressed and impeded this speculative
flipping behaviour. As every buyer was presented with certain options for their Dendro,
influencing their individual piece, as well as the overall collection, raritiesfor instance, the
number of cores of a certain colourcould not be predetermined. MICK + WOUT questioned
and prevented an encounter with the artwork constrained by a potential monetary value derived
from its artificially created rarity status. Both DendroRithms and unsigned_algorithms are
artworks that were adjusted to the idiosyncrasies and limitations of their medium, contrasting
other types of art which use blockchain technology. I will now inductively demonstrate why
these artworks could not be accommodated by any other art medium, and, more importantly,
how their characteristics form a genuine art form. Both examples happen to be programmatic
artworks. I will outline why blockchain art is intrinsically programmatic and, in addition, argue
that it also exhibits a decentralised nature.
Programmatic art differs from other art forms in terms of constitution, (im)materiality, and
accessibility. The relation between programmer, computer, algorithm, and outcome appears to
be complex due to an uncertain distribution of agency. In addition, programming as a
profession is closely associated with the advance in internet technology and engineering rather
than with artistic practice. Some of these factors make the art form less intuitively graspable
than others and might cause the earlier described lack of comprehensive academic research on
the topic. A rather negative sentiment, in combination with an unfamiliarity, has also arisen
with regards to NFTs and blockchain art. By introducing DendroRithms and
unsigned_algorithms, I intended to provide guidance on how programming as an artistic skill
can be approached as a method of creative expression. In a brief digression, I will describe
some of these qualities and issues in relation to previous examples and in the context of
blockchain art, attempting to make programmatic art more accessible.
The constitution of programmatic art offers parallels to music compositions, performative,
and conceptual art. In each of these cases, the artist composes a set of rulesfor example, a
score, instructions, or an algorithmwhich defines the eventual artwork. An intermediary is
sometimes required to execute the script. In programmatic art, as previously defined, a
26
computer is the executing agent and the realisation is, thus, not subject to human exposure. The
entirely digital procedure, indeed, affects the outcome as well as our perception of the work.
We are used to seeing the indented, and unintended, human subtleties. These include, for
example, personal interpretations or missed chords in music performances, emphasising the
artistic ability and skillset of the author, as well as the performer. This applies even more to
artworks without intermediaries such as paintings where we can experience the hand of the
painter through their brushstrokes. While every single music or art performance is slightly
different due to human interpretation, the sensory outcome of a programmatic artwork is
always identical in case this is intended. unsig00001 will look the exact same way every single
time when the according parameters are processed by the algorithm.
A computer precisely translates the input into an output, following the rules of the script.
The absence of human agency during the processing might lead to the impression that the
outcome is static and impersonal. However, the opposite is the case. A computer intrinsically
does not exhibit agency, and, consequently, there is no room for interpretation. Every output
offers an immediate and unfiltered experience of all decisions the artist made, while the
algorithm itself resembles a transcript of their thinking process to achieve the given output. We
can retrace the decisions which MICK + WOUT made to define the core structure of each
Dendro by looking at the code, for example, the width and opacity of the stroke. Reading an
algorithm would be comparable to
reading Picasso’s thoughts while he
painted Guernica, witnessing the
sequence of his actions and
decisions. An algorithm not only
contains the instructions for an
artwork, but it also reveals the
approach the artist pursued when
creating this artwork. It discloses the
capabilities of the artists, parts of
their thinking process, and,
ultimately, parts of their personality.
Code can be art, and this type of art
is intimate.
MICK + WOUT, DendroRithms, lines 1133 of the algorithm,
included in Dendro0000, minted as NFT on Cardano, 2022.
Own screenshot.
27
Another characteristic of programmatic artworks is their immateriality. We are used to
physically encountering artworks, and, moreover, to experiencing the physicality of them. Even
though we visually experience a generated image on a computer screen in a, to some extent,
comparable way as we see an oil painting hanging on a wall, we automatically realise that the
setting is different. By touching the computer screen, we touch the displaying medium rather
than an unsig or Dendro, or the actual blockchain itself. It is inherently impossible to physically
grasp programmatic art, except in cases where the output is transferred onto a secondary
medium, such as a print. All primary components of the artworkinputs, algorithm, and
outputremain immaterial. This not only affects how programmatic art is encountered, but
also where. Neither the location of the artwork, nor of the spectator, matter. NFTs can be
accessed anywhere, given there is an internet connection. When browsing the internet for
Guernica, various facsimiles can be found and explored. However, the original can only be
seen within the walls of the Museo Reina Sofia in Madrid. As opposed to this, everyone with
the correct weblink can see an original unsig or Dendro.
Programmatic art, as defined in this context, intrinsically belongs to digital art. Above’s
questions regarding originality and reproducibility are related to the confined history of this art
form. A fundamental issue related to the immaterial nature of digital art is, at least partially,
the absence of hardware which makes art scarce (non-fungible) and, therefore, sellable. The
invention and mass adoption of the computer, the internet, and the world wide web have
brought a plethora of new possibilities to art practice. However, the past seventy years have
been characterised by the struggle to integrate these various novel media and techniques for art
making into the art market. Due to their reproducibility, digital assets required either a material
counterpart that could be sold, or measures to restrict access to the artwork. For example, this
could be done through websites that require login credentials, or by using watermarks.
Alternatively, digital photographs can be printed. They can, in other words, be transferred onto
a different medium, to be sold. Such solutions often appear impractical, inelegant and do not
make sense. In summary, a major issue related to digital art was the lack of an appropriate way
of commodifying it, in combination with, especially in the case of programmatic art, an
incomprehension of the matter itself. The invention of a method that grants digital scarcity was
not only crucial for digital currencies (cryptocurrencies), but also for digital art. NFTs create
digital scarcity which enables, for the first time, the growth of an adequate market for
immaterial art forms. However, a blockchain is not only a means for art dissemination. By
28
returning to the blockchain as an art medium, I will distinguish between quantitative and
qualitative aspects which characterise and define this art form.
DendroRithms and unsigned_algorithms could not, in the form they exist, have been created
in any other medium. Besides others,
35
MICK + WOUT and Watanabe catered to the
specifications of NFTs and blockchain technology. NFTs, as means for mass dissemination,
influenced the quantitative aspects. Firstly, it became possible to work with extensive
collection sizes. While programmatic art theoretically also allows experiments with digital
seriality, the phenomenon appeared after the introduction of NFTs. DendroRithms and
unsigned_algorithms both grapple with the collection size as a conceptual component. Unlike
PFPs, where, in the majority of all cases, every single item is a standalone piece, every Dendro,
as well as every unsig, must be understood as an independent piece and, equally, as a part of
an overarching composition. The number of 31,119 unsigs is not arbitrary but reflects a series
of choices Watanabe made in terms of what should, and must not, be included.
36
A consequence
of the variance and seriality is that single unsigs can be
combined in a multitude of possible matching (or not
matching) compositions which creates an additional
layer of complexity, influencing our perception of, and
relation to, the entirety of the collection. The second
quantitative aspect is the sales process which has
become part of the design in both cases; for example,
every minter influenced the overall art installation
when buying a Dendro. Watanabe, on the other hand,
released unsigs in three phases at different price levels,
playing with psychological factors. The third
quantitative factor, eventually, is the digitisation of an
entire art scene; storage, sale, and display are carried
out digitally. In the case of unsigs, the use of the RGB
colour model required a digital solution for the sale and
display. Printing unsigs would have meant transferring
them onto a different medium and necessarily
35
A small number of artists and programmers are working on blockchain art on the Cardano blockchain. These
are, among others, Steel, TurboEgon, ThisCrazyLife, Charles Machin, bstract Potato, and Gregor Neumayr.
36
Programmatic NFT. Exploring the medium of blockchain-based art, its potential and impact on art’, p. 18.
Jim Sanders, composition of unsig03577,
03604, 00498, 00503, 00040, 00042,
07931, and 07935, 2021.
29
converting the RGB model into CYMK, which is used for print media, and thus distorting a
core principle of the artwork.
Moreover, blockchain art is qualitatively affected by the decentralised and programmable
nature of the blockchain itself. I will explain what these terms mean and subsequently apply
them to blockchain art. As shown, blockchains are data storages. In contrast to other entities
that are capable of doing sofor instance, cloud servers such as Amazon Web Service
(AWS)blockchains offer programmability. This means, on a highly abstracted level, certain
rules can be applied to data. These rules are formulated as algorithms which, in most cases,
follow the basic programming principle of if-then-else: if a specific case occurs, then a
predefined action is induced, else another rule is applied. For example, if a certain amount of
money has been sent to an account, then an NFT is sent to wallet 1, else the NFT is sent to
wallet 2. Indeed, these rules can be highly complex and multi-layered. Programmability is an
additional layer of utility, which makes the blockchain a ‘dynamic’ entity, and marks an
essential difference to conventional and ‘static’ data storages. Comparably, the archive of the
V&A in London is a static entity where items are stored. But when some of its contents become
part of an exhibition, these items are brought into a context where new relations among them
are established. Working with, or programming, the contents of a blockchain means bringing
static entities into a context and creating connections. Therefore, blockchains are intrinsically
programmable. Moreover, blockchains as data storages are, as outlined earlier, decentralised.
This means that a multitude of peerspeople or bodies providing a network node who,
eventually, produce blocksare collectively responsible for the maintenance of a blockchain,
and, additionally, all information that is contained is also collectively owned. In analogy, the
Ashmolean Museum collaborates with various institutions, such as the Bodleian Libraries and
the University of Oxford, collectively preserving, researching, and exhibiting a myriad of
cultural goods.
Under the premise that each art form has its specific medium which utilises, emphasises,
and leverages the characteristics of this art form, blockchain art is required to be programmable
and decentralised. DendroRithms and unsigned_algorithms offer both characteristics. On one
hand, methods of programming were used for their creation and the same if-then-else principles
applied as for blockchains. Static issues were put into a context and a set of rules was in both
cases used to generate a certain outcome. Watanabe applied the three basic colours to a
distribution function to create unsigs. MICK + WOUT worked with the external decisions of
the buyer as one input to shape every Dendro. On the other hand, DendroRithms and
30
unsigned_algorithms are decentralised artworks, as they are collectively owned by a multitude
of individuals. The size of the collection potentially allows for a big number of owners. For
instance, there are currently 2,312 people in the possession of at least one unsig.
37
In addition,
it also implies that pieces which constitute the overall artwork can be accessed by anyone,
regardless of whether it is owned by them or not.
The programmatic nature of the artworks, indeed, influences the aesthetic, which is
oftentimes entirely abstract. The conceptual accessibility of programmatic art, in comparison
to, for example, figurative art, is less dependent on the spectator’s familiarity with the given
context of the artwork, such as the local circumstances of a depicted issue. For instance,
Picasso’s Guernica must be understood within its historical context which was strongly
affected by Nazi Germany and the Franco regime. Therefore, meaning in abstract art has to be
constituted by other means, for example, by using colour as a phenomenon that can trigger an
emotional response due to its immersive nature. Then, also the shared ownership, due to a
potentially global reach, demands, to some extent, a universal comprehensibility of its idea.
However, this requirement is inherently fulfilled by its own constitution as both programmatic
and decentralised aspects lead to a sensory outcome which offers these qualities. As a result,
these characteristics even enhance each other. Blockchain technology as a global movement,
where nation states and borders are of minor relevance, requires and, thus, offers inclusivity.
Blockchain art, in turn, adopts these requirements and visually represents them. The artform
adopts the conceptual dimension of its medium. I will provide a holistic interpretation of both
artworks in the last chapter.
Currently, there is an abundance of NFT projects appearing, exposing qualitative
differences; some disclose an artistic purpose, some solely show interest in financial merits,
and yet others reveal the intention to explore a new tool and medium. As outlined in the first
chapter, blockchains encompass a variety of existing concepts and technologies. While none
of its components are novel, it is their combination which creates a new technology. The same
applies to blockchain art. It is a subcategory of generative art, belongs to digital art and shares
certain qualities with mass art. However, the technical idiosyncrasiesits programmatic and
decentralised naturedefine the overall constitution and are leading to a socio-political
dimension, as the requirement of a global accessibility reveals. The discussed artworks are first
37
This number is derived from JPG store, an NFT market place on Cardano: ‘jpg.store’
https://www.jpg.store/collection/unsigned_algorithms?tab=items&sortBy=price-low-to-high&saleType=buy-
now (18 June 2022).
31
examples of this artform which reflect on the potential of a new medium and indicate where
further exploration possibly could lead to. There might be other media in the future which will
be able to accommodate it. Nevertheless, blockchain art, in its current form, constitutes an
autonomous artform, reflecting technological advance and artistic practice.
McLuhan revealed a holistic comprehension of what an art medium constitutes when he
states, ‘[a]ny understanding of social and cultural change is impossible without a knowledge
of the way media work as environments.’
38
This societal aspect is an inherent part of
blockchains as they are primarily created to provide a (financial) platform for direct interaction.
In the last chapter, I will return to the vision behind blockchainsdecentralisation. I will
demonstrate how blockchain art mediates this vision, highlighting, as McLuhan argues, how
‘the environment that man creates becomes his medium for defining his role in it’.
39
Mediating a vision
Since Duchamp, we acknowledge the indispensable and systematic openness of what must
be considered as art. Good art, as I perceive it, reflects, criticises, or comments on certain past
or current issues that concern the human condition; art that enables us to take on new
perspectives and triggers different ways of seeing. In some cases, art transcends criticism, and
instead, creates a vision as a response to a certain phenomenon, suggesting a favourable
alternative to what initially has been criticised, providing inspiration, hope and optimism for
what is ahead of us. Art, in this way, is aimed for innovation and progress, and a desirable
future. For the documenta11 from 2002, Okwui Enwezor claimed and helped to promote
universal ideals beyond colonial legacies. Artworks from around the globe were exhibited and
presented to an equally global audience. His transcultural practice became not only an active
form of protest against existing, mostly Western, standards, but also suggested an alternative
approach that marked another step towards a more inclusive art historical practice. His role as
the curator became ephemeral; what came to the forefront was their commonly pursued goal.
This conveyance of a shared vision, exceeding the scope of singular exhibited works, as it was
achieved during the dokumenta11, can, in my opinion, become a work of art itself. By exposing
a vision to an external audience, an act of actualisation, or even materialisation, takes place,
38
McLuhan/Fiore, p. 26.
39
Ibid., p. 157.
32
turning an imagination into a more concrete and tangible opportunity. Art, therefore, can enact
change.
Blockchain as a medium (for art) provides—to return to McLuhan’s wordsan
environment for human interaction. In this last chapter, I will demonstrate how a shared vision
has been introduced with the invention of blockchain technology, promoting inclusion and
distributed power, while inspiring various artists to work with this theme. In presenting a last
work of blockchain art, I elaborate the role of technology and art within a broader context. This
analysis reveals our subjectively connotated relation to information, but also how blockchain
art in general forces us to question our own perspective. Eventually, it will allow me to provide
a holistic approach on how blockchain art must be analysed in the context of its medium.
40
TX_scope
TX_scope is an on-chain work, created in May 2022, showcasing the growth of the Cardano
blockchain by visualising actual data derived from it. It is a collaboration of the
programmable.art guild with Patrick Rivenbark as creative and Ben Shippee as developer.
Using the blockchain as an infrastructure, the artwork visualises what is otherwise only
accessible to people with programming skills: it shows actual blockchain data. Every block
includes, on one hand, meta information, such as its own ID, or size, and, on the other hand,
the transactions (tx). TX_scope displays the size of the most recent block in real-time. A block
can contain data of up to a maximum of 88 kB in text format while the effectively used space
varies for every block. By showing how much of this (character) space is used, or, in other
words, how ‘full’ a block is, TX_scope brings basic information to the foreground,
simultaneously emphasising its dependency on other metrics in order to gain value from this
information. The fact that a block, for instance, had a size of 66 kB, is rather meaningless.
Translating the absolute value into a relative creates a context; given the maximum size of 88
kB, 75% of it would be used. The work consists of five pieces, each of a size of 14,16 kB,
which equals the maximum number of pieces that could be fitted into one block. Also here, the
programmable.art guild intended to create a context for these values. By choosing a highly
simplistic visual language, all attention is directed to the information which is displayed. Unlike
other forms of data visualisation, such as online dashboards or real-time tracking services, the
40
The following artwork belongs to the author.
33
intention behind TX_scope goes beyond the display of this data and also explores how a
message is conveyed.
Data tells a story. Depending on its mode of representation, for example in the form of
graphs, formulas, or also abstract shapes, slightly different aspects of a dataset are highlighted
which, eventually, defines the message. Data attains its usefulness, presuming utility is aimed
for, when it is placed in a context. The artwork covers various modes, accessed by pressing the
keys 2, 3, 4, I, and P. For each view, the base information is shown under slightly different
circumstances. Modes 2, 3, and 4 explore the ‘depth’ of the block; visualised are the number,
size and type of the contained transactions. These transactions also account for the overall block
size. Modes I and P provide context. Displaying the previous block (mode P) adds a temporal
element. Unlike every other mode, for I, no additional information was added. Instead, in
analogy to an architectural figure-ground plan and its inversion, this mode displays the space
of a block which is left unused. The result is a change in perspective: either we look at a fact,
or at the potential that has not been realised.
41
To refine the previous statement, data does not tell one storyit tells many. The act of
weaving single strings together to form a coherent, or incoherent, narrative is not only creative,
but also, considering how data is used to form narratives to prove, or disprove, issues in science,
politics, and other fields, immensely powerful. MICK + WOUT and Watanabe both used data
as inputs for certain variables to specifically alter the visual outcome. By contrast, the
programmable.art guild took one step back and brought the data itself, the building block of
every blockchain, into the spotlight. The interactive, informative, and dynamic nature of this
work differs from previously shown examples due to its temporal component: it is neither a
static image, nor a snapshot of a moment in time, but an ever-evolving entity with a changing
informational content. It becomes possible to experience the pace, metaphorically the pulse, of
the Cardano blockchain and how its scope is gradually incremented with every new block,
visualising the used, and moreover, the unused space which potentially could have been filled
with more transactions. By offering different modes, we are enabled to experience different
perspectives. Shifting them in general to a more abstract level, other narratives are opened up
relating to space usage as the overall theme of TX_scope.
‘Space’ is a universal concept and its word meaning covers many facets. The
programmable.art guild implicitly alluded to this multitude of possible narratives. For instance,
41
There is more technical information available related to block production. A list can be found here:
‘Blockfrost.io ~ API Documentation’ https://docs.blockfrost.io/ (18 June 2022).
34
switching between looking at the used and unused space evidently refers to the meaning of
space as an empty area. Then, space, indeed, covers a spatial component, comprising a three-
dimensional entity, using the vectors [x / y / z] to define it. As this three-dimensionality could
not be achieved on a two-dimensional display, the third dimensionresponsible to create
depthis conceptually induced by the modes 2, 3, 4 which go into the ‘depth’ of the block
usage, visualising data of a different granularity. Space, furthermore, is a fundamental building
block of the physical concept space-time’. As described, adding the previous block as a
reference to an earlier point in time, the fourth dimension, time, has been introduced as well.
Eventually, a ‘space is the gap between two wordsas it was placed in the title TX_scope.
The artwork reveals a curiosity about ‘space’ as a broad concept, about data and its narratives.
In fact, its simplistic language invites people to familiarise themselves with a novel technology
and its basic elements which otherwise would remain hidden and inaccessible. Metaphorically,
TX_scope reflects the exploration of the ‘crypto space’, an immaterial entity beyond our reach,
opening this ‘space’ to people who are less technophile.
John Berger expounded on the different ways of seeing, dismantling how we look at
artworks influences what we see.
42
He described how the placement of works in differing
contexts, for instance, in juxtaposition with other works, alters our perception of them. Berger
also described how reproductions change our relation to art in general.
43
Indeed, these
observations apply to more than works of art. Hence, what if a subject itself appears
incomprehensible or is of a complexity which makes it intricate to decipher? What if we do not
even understand how to approach it? Blockchain technology is indeed such a subject. Looking
at, and grappling with, the art that is reflecting on blockchains is an alternative way of
experiencing the technology as artworks provide a different context and, therefore, allow an
alternative perspective on it. DendroRithms, unsigned_algorithms and TX_scope explicitly
engage with concepts related to their medium. Examining them leads to an interpretation on a
more abstract level. As I demonstrate below, these artworks might inspire a reflection on the
role of individual humans as part of a society, as well as the dynamics related to these social
structures. These works, furthermore, help to illuminate the conditions and consequences of
our own actions.
DendroRithms thematises the dynamics that evolve between an individual and a group,
visualising the interplay between action and reaction. By introducing an interactive minting
42
J. Berger, Ways of Seeing (London, 1972).
43
Ibid., pp. 733.
35
process, MICK + WOUT made each buyer a participant of a network where everyone was
offered the exact same amount of agency. Participants were implicitly forced to contemplate
their own actions in relation to this network as subsequent pieces were built upon preceding
choices. Metaphorically speaking, DendroRithms resembles a chain of decisions that are linked
together in sequential order. Part of the artistic intention in this work was to inspire a thought
process about the impact of individual actions, not only on the personal realm, but also on the
entirety of the overarching system. The result was a collectively created, digital installation,
reflecting on the shared infrastructure blockchains provide. Coincidentally, the sales of
DendroRithms started shortly before, and went on during, the Russian Invasion of Ukraine in
February 2022. In the light of these events, the relevance of considerations about the vast
impactbe it on a political, economic, or social levelof single instances on a global system,
and more importantly, about alternative models which are able to prevent the abuse of power
at the expense of other instances, became evident.
unsigned_algorithms comprises 31,119 iterations of the same building blocks, exposing the
plethora of options that arise from this premise. The constitution of this artworkan immense
variety of outcomes, all going back to a genesis piece, four input parameters, and combinations
of themmakes us reflect on uniqueness, the valuation of certain traits and their relatedness,
which, eventually, might remind us of the constitution of our human biology. Watanabe
presented a collection of an extensive size that only reflects a fraction of what would have been
possible with given input parameters, demonstrating the relation between potential and
realisation. A collection of matching and non-matching colour combinations entices us to think
about the proximity and interrelatedness of individual entities within the encompassing matrix
that has been generated by means of processing and combinatorics.
TX_scope goes in another direction, questioning the boundaries between what is considered
to be art, data visualisation, and technical application, and, consequently, how the work itself,
and equally, how art and technology in general, is encountered by spectators, or users. The
work is interrogatory and explanatory, implicitly addressing the modernist debate as to whether
art should, or must not, have utility. The legacy of these paradigms are still deeply entrenched
in Western culture and we are working on overcoming its fallacies, for example, by promoting
a holistic comprehension of art as Enwezor envisioned it for the aforementioned documenta11.
TX_scope can be used as a tool to monitor the blockchain load. Alternatively, it can be seen as
a conceptual artwork, playing with the varying semantics of ‘space’. But, in fact, it does not
matter, as it can be, and is, both. The work oscillates between different modes of what it
36
displays, and also between how all these instances are seen, equally affecting our relation to
every single instance of it.
Being confronted with certain technicalities related to blockchain art triggers critical
questions about the technology in general. For instance, the programmatic nature of blockchain
art has revealed the strict operating principles of algorithms once they are enacted. Especially
in dynamic systems, for example TX_scope, where external data inputs are constantly required,
chances exist that unforeseen circumstances disrupt the computing process and lead to failure.
The relations, and distribution of agency, between technology and humans is delicate and
especially relevant for uses cases where mistakes in an algorithm can entail broad consequences
related to, for instance, data privacy. Another example concerns the financial accessibility of
blockchain art. On one hand, an inherently more inclusive art production and dissemination
becomes possible, as people from remote regions may gain access to the art market. On the
other hand, purchasing blockchain art uncovers the prevalent dependency on the current
financial system. Local currencies are exchanged against cryptocurrencies which, in most
cases, are required for the purchase of NFTs. However, exchange rates vary broadly which,
still, makes blockchain art intrinsically more accessible for people from financially strong
nations. The interaction with blockchain technology when purchasing NFTs forces every buyer
to think about this kind of related processes. To summarise, DendroRithms,
unsigned_algorithms and TX_scope cause a shift in perspective. This observation does not
necessarily apply to all examples of blockchain art. However, I see it as a consequence of their
self-reflexive nature: blockchain art reflects on blockchain technology, which, in turn,
explicitly aims for a systemic shift. I will disentangle this idea in the following.
Due to the conceptual and abstract nature of blockchain art, where meaning cannot be ‘seen’
immediately, we have to shift our focus on what can be derived mediately, in a broader, more
philosophical sense. This emphasises their universal comprehensibility and validity. By
analysing the works on an abstract level, we are forced to take on an outside perspective,
reflecting on the entirety of presented models. This positioning outside of it makes us, in turn,
recognise and reflect the location we usually have within such a system. Blockchain art, thus,
is self-reflexive. People holding a Dendro, unsig, or a TX_scope become implicitly or explicitly
aware of the fact that they are one participant in a wider network of many peers. The meaning
of blockchain art is derived from its own constitution which is inextricably linked to the
medium. The medium, then, has been built to create an environment where the relation between
peers and the entirety of the network is a core issue, intending to shift power from a focal point
37
towards a multitude of them. This is a systemic shift. Indeed, it concerns in the first instance
the financial system, as society majorly relies on the exchange of money, but it is also
applicable to other industries such as the art market. The blockchain itself is much more than a
medium for art. It stands for peer-to-peer communication and accessibility, for open source
and, equally, for the right of ownership. It stands for openness and decentralisation. Whereas
blockchain technology is all about shifting power from one instance to many; blockchain art
is, implicitly, or explicitly, (about) visualising this shift of perspective. The ideals, potential,
and issues related to the technology become tangible through blockchain art.
McLuhan offered a succinct overview of media history, stating that ‘[p]rint technology
created the public. Electric technology created the mass. The public consists of separate, fixed
points of view. The new technology demands that we abandon the luxury of this posture, this
fragmentary outlook’.
44
His vision of a global village, where the ‘fragmentary look’ would be
replaced by multilateral communication, was only partially realised. Telecommunication, and,
since the beginning of the twenty-first century, the world wide web, build an environment
based on a one-to-many communicative model. However, this way of broadcasting is still
fragmentary as it majorly reflects isolated perspectives of the body which has the power to
broadcast. By contrast, the blockchain is an environment that allows a many-to-many
communication as power is distributed amongst many peers. The documenta11 exemplifies the
difference between both models. Enwezor expanded the traditional setting of the exhibition
from one location to five, spread across the globe. He not only decentralised the exhibition, but
he also shared curatorship. A group of people collectively organised a multitude of events,
reflecting various perspectives and being accessible by a multitude of people. Blockchain
technology offers a shared infrastructure. In this sense, it is an environment for human
interaction, offering anyone the role they want to take on, be it a sender, or receiver, or both.
MICK + WOUT, Watanabe, and the programmable.art guild are exploring the blockchain
as a medium, expressing curiosity about a novel technology and its intersections with art. This
curiosity exemplifies the position we, as a global society, are in right now: on the threshold
between an analogue and digital realm. Not necessarily in a short-term perspective, but
considering the history of art, or rather the human history as a whole, we are on the verge of a
digital era with blockchain technology as one of its components. New technologies entail
uncertainty and tension. Internet technology, artificial intelligence, as well as blockchain
44
McLuhan/Fiore, pp. 68f.
38
technology are the major inventions in engineering of the past century, questioning traditional
models of human interaction. They enable innovation and the exploration of unprecedented
possibilities, creating space for encounter, novel ways of expression, and, indeed, provoke new
perspectives. The intention behind this dissertation, written in the field of art history, is not to
describe an issue of the past. Instead, this is an expression of my own curiosity about an
occurrence of the here and now which not only transcends the field of art (history), but also the
present, potentially affecting the future.
Without any doubt, there are countless flaws, misconceptions, and sincere risks still present
with blockchain technology. The surge of NFT production, in many cases a mere revenue
generating machinery without any further (artistic) intention; the psychological effects of
consumer culture leading to sometimes highly speculative cryptocurrency trading; or even the
halt of entire blockchainsfor instance, the Terra blockchain crashed in May 2022, influencing
the cryptocurrency market profoundlyexpose some of these issues in their extreme forms.
However, expecting that a technology that holds the potential to structurally change our
financial system, our ways of interaction and communication, and eventually our societal
patterns, could be immaculately conceptualised, built, and deployed within less than two
decades, is utopian. There is probably not a single invention which brought significant change
that came without any issues in the beginning. This applies to blockchain technology itself, as
well as its art production. Artists and creatives are experimenting with this new medium in
various ways, leading to varying results. This exploration of the unknown, sometimes resulting
in failure, is an indication of growth. Blockchain technology is capable of changing profound
structures. This implies equally profound changes in order to correct them, otherwise its
profundity would either be counterfeit, or irrelevant. Eventually, blockchain technology is
much more than a medium for art or platform for money. It affects our individual lives by
changing our position within a society. John Perry Barlow wrote A Declaration of the
Independence of Cyberspace in 1996 whose ideals holistically apply to blockchain
technology:
45
Cyberspace consists of transactions, relationships, and thought itself, arrayed like a standing
wave in the web of our communications. Ours is a world that is both everywhere and nowhere,
but it is not where bodies live.
We are creating a world that all may enter without privilege or prejudice accorded by race,
economic power, military force, or station of birth.
45
J. P. Barlow, ‘A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace’ https://www.eff.org/cyberspace-independence
(14 May 2022).
39
We are creating a world where anyone, anywhere may express his or her beliefs, no matter how
singular, without fear of being coerced into silence or conformity. […]
We will create a civilization of the Mind in Cyberspace. May it be more humane and fair than
the world your governments have made before.
To conclude this dissertation, I will return to art. Besides others, MICK + WOUT,
Alexander Watanabe, and the programmable.art guild are exploring the blockchain as an
environment to make art while synchronously working towards a common vision. Art is
relevant not only because it reflects on issues of the past and the present, but also because, at
least in some cases, it makes us imagine what the future might look like. Art possesses the
power to make us envision a state that is not (yet) real, and to make us consider actions required
to turn such a vision into reality. Art can enact change, and so too might blockchain art. The
blockchain itself forms a palimpsest where single strands cannot be decoupled from the
entirety: it is a medium for blockchain art, equally, it is the medium for an alternative finance
system, and, eventually, blockchain always mediates the overarching vision of decentralisation.
And the medium is the message, too.
40
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art (20 May 2022)
‘“I went from having to borrow money to making $4m in a “day”: how NFTs are shaking up
the art world’ https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/nov/06/how-nfts-non-
fungible-tokens-are-shaking-up-the-art-world (20 May 2022)
41
Secondary Material
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Benjamin, W., ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’ (1936), in Ch.
Harrison and P. Wood (eds), Art in Theory 19002000. An Anthology of Changing Ideas
(Malden/Oxford, 2003), pp. 520527
Berger, J., Ways of Seeing (London, 1972)
Boden, M. A. and Edmonds, E. A., What Is Generative Art?’, Digital Creativity, 20/12
(2009), pp. 2146
Carroll, N., A Philosophy of Mass Art (Oxford, 1998)
Catlow, R., Garrett, M., Jones, N. and Skinner, S. (eds), Artists Re:Thinking the Blockchain
(Liverpool, 2017)
Dorin, A., et al., ‘A Framework for Understanding Generative Art’, Digital Creativity, 23/34
(2012), pp. 239259
Galanter, Ph., ‘What is Generative Art? Complexity Theory as a Context for Art Theory’
(unpublished paper, 2003), http://www.philipgalanter.com/downloads/ga2003_paper.pdf
(4 June 2022)
Godfrey, T., Conceptual Art (London/New York, 1998)
Greenberg, C., ‘Avant-Garde and Kitsch’ (1939), in Ch. Harrison and P. Wood (eds), Art in
Theory 19002000. An Anthology of Changing Ideas (Malden/Oxford, 2003), pp. 539549
Greenberg, C., ‘Towards a Newer Laocoon’ (1940), in Ch. Harrison and P. Wood (eds), Art in
Theory 19002000. An Anthology of Changing Ideas (Malden/Oxford, 2003), pp. 562568
Lewis, A., The Basics of Bitcoins and Blockchains. An Introduction to Cryptocurrencies and
the Technology that Powers Them (Coral Gables, 2021)
LeWitt, S., ‘Paragraphs on Conceptual Art’ (1967), in Ch. Harrison and P. Wood (eds), Art in
Theory 19002000. An Anthology of Changing Ideas (Malden/Oxford, 2003), pp. 846849
MacDonald-Korth, D., et al., The Art Market 2.0: Blockchain and Financialisaton in Visual
Arts (Oxford Internet Institute and The Alan Turing Institute, 2018)
McIver Lopes, D., A Philosophy of Computer Art (Abingdon, 2010)
McLuhan, M. and Fiore, Q., The Medium Is the Message, ed. J. Agel (London, 1967)
Patrickson, B., What Do Blockchain Technologies Imply for Digital Creative Industries?’,
Creativity and Innovation Management, 30/3 (2021), pp. 585595
Paul, Ch., Digital Art, 3rd edn (London, 2015)
Pearson, M., Generative Art. A Practical Guide Using Processing (Shelter Island, NY, 2011)
Platt, M., et al., The Energy Footprint of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms Beyond Proof-
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Quality, Reliability and Security Companion QRS-C), pp. 11351144
42
Tapscott, D. and Tapscott, A., Blockchain Revolution. How the Technology behind Bitcoin and
other Cryptocurrencies Is Changing the World (London, 2019)
Whitaker, A., ‘Art and Blockchain: A Primer, History, and Taxonomy of Blockchain Use Cases
in the Arts’, Artivate, 8/2 (2019), pp. 2146
43
NFTs
MICK + WOUT, DendroRithms, Dendro0000, input parameters and algorithm, minted as NFT
on Cardano, 2022. Owner: Mick van Meelen and Wout Fierens.
https://cardanoscan.io/transaction/4b784e7339c29f4ef1212bcc5ca56078a1e46f672587a99
bcca2628df1e
14d47?tab=metadata (20 June 2022)
MICK + WOUT, DendroRithms, wallet with various pieces, minted as NFT on Cardano, 2022.
Owner: the author. https://pool.pm/stake1uyzgn9c54694qxr8dxhfxm5fz3k5s3qc8z6
rfkunhmu7k0qxy83g9/%402e9b243d (20 June 2022)
MICK + WOUT, DendroRithms, Dendro0777, input parameters and algorithm, minted as NFT
on Cardano, 2022. Owner: the author. https://bit.ly/3N4TnrN (20 June 2022)
Alexander Watanabe, unsigned_algorithms, unsig00000, sensory outcome, minted as NFT on
Cardano, 2021. Owner: @adaboy98669717. https://pool.pm/0e14267a8020229
adc0184dd25fa3174c3f7d6caadcb4425c70e7c04.unsig00000 (20 June 2022)
Alexander Watanabe, unsigned_algorithms, unsig00000, input parameters and algorithm,
minted as NFT on Cardano, 2021. Owner: @adaboy98669717.
https://cardanoscan.io/transaction/e4a90da18935e73f7fd6ffaa688b35b011a1a8a710b47bd
b5d7103a05afc
0197?tab=metadata (20 June 2022)
Alexander Watanabe, unsigned_algorithms, wallet with various pieces, minted as NFT on
Cardano, 2021. Owner: Grancho.
https://pool.pm/addr1qx62yzsp66tjxy7yeqkqfdkfwtks56f7
trqrdew88u049vzmxzkmcc5c3q6pa6tgt3ddpr8rnyda2j258cwtqm30pqgq3kswm9/%400e1
4267a (20 June 2022)
programmable.art guild with Patrick Rivenbark and Ben Shippee, TX_scope, NFVTXS1,
sensory outcome, minted as NFT on Cardano, 2022. Owner: the author.
https://www.programmable.art/txscope (20 June 2022)
NyteLyte, Going out West, mixed media collage, minted as NFT on Cardano, 2021. Owner:
the author. https://pool.pm/asset1035tma7jt9ve47j90vfv5z7s2a3ne5he4lwyuj (20 June
2022)
44
Acknowledgements
Firstly, I wish to thank my supervisor, Geoffrey Batchen, who guided me through the
writing process of this dissertation. It has been an extremely interesting, exciting, and, at times,
intimidating experience to do this research in the very early blocks of blockchain art. Many
people from the Cardano community, who are equally excited, curious, and critical, gave me
some answers when there were none elsewhere. Jim Sanders, your passion for unsigs and
blockchain (art) inspired me to go this wayit was a change of direction that went far beyond
the change of a thesis topic. I am so grateful, pawa. There are countless other people I want to
mention: Joshua S. (!) Bamford, you introduced me to the scientifically proven power of
synchronicity; NyteLyte, you showed me the intensity of light and darkness, the beauty of the
unsettling, and the subtlety of a frying pan; and you, Daniel Rodríguez, provided technical
guidance and lit a candle whenever needed. Jelani Sasso, Solaire, MarchCat, Ibis, Redegg,
Grancho, CryptoMatt, Per van der Horst, and many members from the unsig and Dendro
communities, thank you for sharing your insights, questioning my beliefs, and always having
an answer to why it all matters. The compassion and dedication of Holger Hartstock, Quasar,
and the always happy Felix Weber, to build a more just system, is exceptionalyou were, and
are, inspiring me much more than you even know. Fellow OxBATs, thank you for spreading
the wings of encounter. Noodz and Rod.G., you were the heroes five minutes before midnight.
And you, Marcel Niessner, made me go home and eat an apple. A special thanks to all the
creative people who are exploring blockchain art: the programmable.art guild, especially Ben
Shippee, for questioning and blurring the lines between beauty and utility; Mick and Wout for
thinking, creating, and communicating so holistically (Naples Yellow, a colour that deserves
immutability!); and Alex Watanable for always pushing the boundaries and (in)appropriately
dissecting the apes. But mainly thank you for making art that makes us think and feel. Lastly,
I deeply want to thank you, Patrick Rivenbark, my friend and partner in crime whose heart is
always on fire, for being the human being you are. Yall, and many more, who endured and
supported the stubborn, and meticulous person I can be; this for you. It has been the craziest
and most fun experience I hadso far.
The medium is the message, too!